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Supervisory style is a critical determinant of doctoral student completion rates, with the quality of the supervisor-student relationship, communication patterns, supervisor availability, and alignment of expectations all playing significant roles in timely completion.
Impact of supervisory styles: directive vs. facilitative
Directive supervision – characterised by high structure, control, and explicit instructions – can lead to short-term academic output but may hinder student autonomy, creativity, and long-term research independence. Students under directive supervisors often achieve rapid results but risk lacking critical thinking and self-direction, which can impede their future academic careers once independent work is required (Wu, Oubibi and Bao, 2024; Khuram et al., 2023; Collins and Saadi, 2021).
In contrast, facilitative or supportive supervision – marked by guidance, encouragement, and autonomy support – fosters student engagement, psychological well-being, and research productivity, ultimately increasing the likelihood of timely and successful completion (Khuram et al., 2023; García et al., 2025; Feizi and Elgar, 2023).
The most effective supervisors adapt their style to the student’s developmental stage, providing more direction early on and gradually shifting toward facilitation as the student gains competence (Collins and Saadi, 2021; García et al., 2025).
Communication patterns
Frequent, open, and constructive communication is consistently linked to higher satisfaction, better academic progress, and lower attrition rates. Timely feedback, regular meetings, and clear guidance are highly valued by students and are associated with increased satisfaction and completion rates (Rooij, Fokkens-Bruinsma and Jansen, 2019; Feizi and Elgar, 2023; Wu, Oubibi and Bao, 2024; Zahid and Mahmood, 2025).
Poor communication, delayed feedback, or lack of engagement from supervisors are major contributors to student dissatisfaction and dropout (Wu, Oubibi and Bao, 2024; Feizi and Elgar, 2023; Zahid and Mahmood, 2025).
Supervisor availability
Supervisor availability – both in terms of physical presence and responsiveness to student needs – is a strong predictor of doctoral progress and completion. Students who report frequent, accessible, and supportive interactions with their supervisors are more likely to complete their degrees on time (Rooij, Fokkens-Bruinsma and Jansen, 2019; Wu, Oubibi and Bao, 2024; Zahid and Mahmood, 2025).
Conversely, lack of availability and support is associated with increased risk of attrition (Rooij, Fokkens-Bruinsma and Jansen, 2019; Wu, Oubibi and Bao, 2024).
Alignment of expectations
Misalignment between student and supervisor expectations regarding roles, responsibilities, and outcomes is a major source of conflict and delay. Explicit discussion and clarification of mutual expectations – covering academic practices, feedback, deadlines, and personal support – are essential for productive relationships and timely completion (Collins and Saadi, 2021; García et al., 2025; Pavliuk and Zhuchkova, 2025).
Institutions that facilitate expectation alignment and provide structured support for supervisor selection and relationship management see improved student satisfaction and progress (Pavliuk and Zhuchkova, 2025; Collins and Saadi, 2021).
Table: Supervisory factors influencing doctoral completion
| Factor | Positive Impact on Completion | Negative Impact on Completion | Citations |
|---|---|---|---|
| Supervisory Style | Facilitative, supportive, adaptive | Directive, rigid, laissez-faire | (Khuram et al., 2023; Collins and Saadi, 2021; Wu, Oubibi and Bao, 2024; García et al., 2025) |
| Communication Patterns | Frequent, open, timely feedback | Poor, infrequent, delayed feedback | (Wu, Oubibi and Bao, 2024; Feizi and Elgar, 2023; Rooij, Fokkens-Bruinsma and Jansen, 2019; Zahid and Mahmood, 2025) |
| Supervisor Availability | Accessible, responsive | Unavailable, unresponsive | (Rooij, Fokkens-Bruinsma and Jansen, 2019; Wu, Oubibi and Bao, 2024; Zahid and Mahmood, 2025) |
| Alignment of Expectations | Explicit, mutually agreed | Unclear, misaligned | (Collins and Saadi, 2021; García et al., 2025; Pavliuk and Zhuchkova, 2025) |
Figure 1: Key supervisory factors and their impact on doctoral completion rates.
Conclusion
Doctoral completion is most likely when supervisors adopt a flexible, facilitative style, maintain open communication, are readily available, and align expectations with their students. Institutions can further support timely completion by fostering these supervisory practices and providing structured support for both students and supervisors.
References
- Pavliuk, D., & Zhuchkova, S., 2025. Choosing to succeed? Insights into doctoral students’ supervisor selection and its outcomes. PLOS One, 20. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328471
- Khuram, W., Wang, Y., Ali, M., Khalid, A., & Han, H., 2023. Impact of Supportive Supervisor on Doctoral Students’ Research Productivity: The Mediating Roles of Academic Engagement and Academic Psychological Capital. SAGE Open, 13. https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440231185554
- Collins, H., & Saadi, I., 2021. Alignment of Doctoral Student and Supervisor Expectations in Malaysia. International Journal of Doctoral Studies, 16, pp. 001-029. https://doi.org/10.28945/4682
- Wu, S., Oubibi, M., & Bao, K., 2024. How supervisors affect students’ academic gains and research ability: An investigation through a qualitative study. Heliyon, 10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e31079
- Feizi, S., & Elgar, F., 2023. Satisfaction, research productivity, and socialization in doctoral students: Do teaching assistantship, research assistantship and the advisory relationship play a role?. Heliyon, 9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e19332
- Rooij, E., Fokkens-Bruinsma, M., & Jansen, E., 2019. Factors that influence PhD candidates’ success: the importance of PhD project characteristics. Studies in Continuing Education, 43, pp. 48 – 67. https://doi.org/10.1080/0158037x.2019.1652158
- García, I., Martínez, J., García, F., & De Witte, H., 2025. Navigating Stress, Support and Supervision: A Qualitative Study of Doctoral Student Wellbeing in Norwegian Academia. International Journal of Doctoral Studies. https://doi.org/10.28945/5413
- Zahid, M., & Mahmood, Q., 2025. Exploration of doctoral students’ supervisory experiences in Pakistani universities. Masyarakat, Kebudayaan dan Politik. https://doi.org/10.20473/mkp.v38i12025.30-43